The Philosophical Paradox of Certainty and Its Implications
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Introduction: Where Does Philosophy Begin?
When embarking on a philosophical journey, the question arises: do you start from your current situation or seek an ideal perspective? The former seems practical, as your present circumstances might illuminate the problems that trouble you. However, many renowned philosophers have taken a different approach.
Rene Descartes (1596–1650), a foundational figure in modern philosophy, argued that genuine inquiry must commence from a point of absolute certainty, achieved through a precise method yielding logically necessary conclusions. His background in physics and mathematics set a high standard for this quest.
Yet history suggests that this pursuit of certainty may have been misdirected. Science has progressed without adhering to the notion of absolute certainties, similarly, theology suffered as Descartes reduced God to a mere component of his logical framework.
I aim to demonstrate that the Cartesian approach diverted Western philosophy onto an erroneous path. By the time we reach David Hume (1711–1776), the field found itself trapped in skepticism. The transcendental shift introduced by Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) attempted to break free from this impasse but, in fact, further entrenched it. Even G.W.F. Hegel (1770–1831), who pioneered historicism, wrestled with the foundational questions of science.
Pragmatists like C.S. Peirce (1839–1914), Christian existentialist Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855), literary figures such as Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910), and linguistic philosophers like Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951) present alternative paths. They advocate that starting from your current context — the situation that prompted your philosophical inquiry — is the most effective approach. This challenges the perception of philosophy as an exclusive academic discipline requiring years of rigorous training, suggesting a potential revolution in both teaching and practicing philosophy.
The Age of Discovery: A New Perspective
During the early Age of Discovery, European expeditions to distant lands revealed diverse beliefs that contrasted sharply with Western thought. Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592), whose work influenced Descartes, raised doubts about the uniqueness of European knowledge claims, prompting the question, "Que sais-je?" ("What do I know?").
In this context, Descartes felt compelled to establish a permanent foundation for philosophy, science, and theology that would apply universally.
The first video, "On John Dewey's 'The Quest for Certainty'", discusses the philosophical implications of certainty and the challenges it presents in modern thought.
From Methodological Doubt to Epistemic Skepticism
In his seminal work, Meditations on First Philosophy (1641), Descartes sought an indubitable proposition by employing methodological doubt to challenge any belief that could be false. He questioned the reliability of his senses, both at a distance and in familiar surroundings, pondering if his experiences were merely dreams.
Drawing parallels to The Matrix, where Morpheus questions Neo's ability to distinguish reality from illusion, Descartes concluded that sensory testimony is inherently suspect. Yet, he reasoned that mathematical truths remain constant regardless of one's state of consciousness. He introduced the concept of an Evil Deceiver, leading him to doubt even basic mathematical principles, ultimately arriving at the realization that the act of doubting itself confirms the existence of a thinking entity.
"I think; therefore, I am" became a foundational statement in Western philosophy. Descartes built upon this truth to formulate an ontological argument for God's existence, positing that the idea of a perfect being could not originate from a flawed human source. This established a tripartite division in knowledge that persists today, segmenting the sciences, arts, and theology.
Despite Descartes’ influence, subsequent philosophers questioned his conclusions, leading to a more complicated understanding of knowledge and reality. The challenge of reconciling mental and material substances became central, with thinkers like John Locke (1632–1704) and Bishop George Berkeley (1685–1753) offering differing perspectives.
The Dilemma of Certainty
As we examine Descartes’ methodological doubt, a crucial question arises: could the Evil Deceiver also undermine the principles of logic? If Descartes cast doubt on these rules, he would hinder his philosophical progression. However, if he did not, he would lack justification for advancing his Cogito argument.
This paradox suggests that Descartes may have overlooked a fundamental truth: certain propositions, particularly logical ones, cannot be sensibly doubted without paralyzing his philosophical inquiry. Had he recognized this, the trajectory of Western philosophy might have been significantly different.
The Quest for Certainty: A Psychological State
It’s essential to recognize that certainty is a temporal psychological state rather than an epistemological certainty. One can feel absolutely certain about something today, only for circumstances to change tomorrow. This notion aligns with the analytical philosophy of mind, which describes certainty as a strong belief rather than concrete proof.
C.S. Peirce critiqued the Cartesian method, suggesting that it begins with universal doubt, whereas traditional philosophy never questioned its foundations. He advocated for starting from the beliefs we hold, as they are not mere prejudices but integral to our understanding.
Kierkegaard and Tolstoy: Faith Beyond Reason
Kierkegaard argued against proving God's existence through logical means, suggesting that real faith transcends empirical experience. His perspective led to a form of Christian existentialism that prioritizes faith as a starting point rather than a conclusion drawn from reasoning.
Similarly, Tolstoy emphasized the faith of ordinary people, who often find meaning through simple yet profound beliefs. Viktor Frankl’s experiences in Auschwitz illustrated the necessity of hope for survival, underscoring the importance of finding meaning amidst suffering.
Wittgenstein: The Nature of Language and Certainty
Ludwig Wittgenstein's contributions to philosophy were profound, particularly regarding language use. He emphasized that philosophical problems arise when language is misapplied or detached from its ordinary functions. This insight reveals that discussions of certainty often serve to reassure rather than clarify.
In his later works, Wittgenstein suggested that understanding the practical use of language can illuminate philosophical quandaries. For example, questioning the nature of reality often leads to convoluted discussions rather than actionable insights.
Conclusion: Rethinking the Quest for Certainty
In summary, the search for certainty as a foundational pillar of knowledge is ultimately misguided. While some areas, like mathematics, may offer absolute truths, in most cases, we must navigate the complexities of probability and likelihood.
Philosophy should begin from our current circumstances and the beliefs we hold. Rather than seeking absolute certainty, we can embrace the uncertainties of life, allowing for a more nuanced understanding of our experiences and decisions.
The second video, "The Quest for Certainty | René Descartes", explores the historical and philosophical ramifications of Descartes' quest for absolute certainty and its relevance today.